Opportunities for Standards to Contribute to Health , Safety , Resiliency , and Environmental Protection in Canada ’ s North

The objective of this research and article is to investigate potential opportunities for standards to contribute to increased health, safety, resiliency, and environmental protection in Canada’s North. Specifi cally, we focus attention on four key topic areas where there are unique considerations in Canada’s North relative to the potential role for standards and also a number of identifi ed challenges: the provision of clean and accessible water, the provision of adequate emergency response, having safe and resilient buildings to live and work in, and environmental protection and management. Fourteen different opportunities for standards have been identifi ed across these topic areas. The article also highlights that there are needs and opportunities in terms of better allowing for the inclusion of northern perspectives and input into northern standards and presents three distinct ideas for helping to achieve this. The Northern Review 48 (2018): 33–50 Published by Yukon College, Whitehorse, Canada https://doi.org/10.22584/nr48.2018.002


Introduction
Th e objective of this research was to investigate potential opportunities for standards to contribute to increased health, safety, resiliency, and environmental protection in Canada's North.Specifi cally, we focused attention on four key topic areas where there are unique considerations in Canada's North relative to the potential role for standards and also a number of identifi ed challenges: the provision of clean and accessible water, the provision of adequate emergency response, having safe and resilient buildings to live and work in, and environmental protection and management.Th is article draws upon a white paper published by CSA Group that undertook a broader review of the potential for standards to help address issues and challenges facing Canada's North (CSA Group 2017).
One of the key motivations underlying this research is that northern Canada's unique environment and geography often necessitates diff erent processes, procedures, and technologies than those used in southern Canada, with a commensurate need for related standards to refl ect these diff erences.For example, many buildings in Canada's North are located in regions underlain by permafrost, with this often requiring the use of specifi c technologies or specialized engineering procedures to mitigate permafrost degradation.Compared to more southern and warmer locales, the cold ambient temperatures in the North often mean the use of diff erent types of, or performance requirements for, personal protective equipment across a range of applications.Th e cold also results in diff erent rates of environmental processes such as decomposition.Additionally, Canada's North has been experiencing signifi cant environmental and economic changes in recent years, particularly those related to climate change, which is amplifi ed in the Arctic.Th ese factors may even further necessitate the need for standards specifi cally geared towards northern issues and realities.

Methodology
A literature review was conducted in order to help identify and better understand the key topic areas highlighted.A consultation approach was then used to help further understand these topics as well as to understand if there could be opportunities and a role for standards in helping to improve human health, safety, resiliency, and environmental protection.Over the course of this study, CSA Group had ongoing contact with a cross section of professionals and organizations active and involved in and with the North.
Th e next step involved assessing ideas of where standards could help contribute to health, safety, resiliency, and environmental protection in Canada's North.Th ree key criteria were used to help prioritize thesesocietal benefi t, urgency, and feasibility (see Figure 1).In applying these criteria, the ideas for standards were ranked highest where it was identifi ed there would be a societal benefi t, where the idea was feasible to achieve, and where there was urgency to do so (i.e., where all three circles intersect in Figure 1).
With respect to possible societal benefi ts, attention was focused on the protection of human health, promotion of safety, and the protection of the environment.Urgency was considered with respect to the immediacy of expected benefi ts in dealing with the challenge.Feasibility was considered largely in terms of whether the topic area is ready for standards to be developed and applied.

Importance, Defi nition, and Enforcement
Standards are important tools for business, regulators, and for society generally as standards specify rules to help ensure uniform application of a policy or procedure, while also helping to mainstream the use and application of best practices.Th e typical purpose of a standard is to specify expectations and provide a means to measure compliance with its provisions.Th ey usually contain a mix of requirements and recommendations, and are written in a way that the user can demonstrate compliance with the content.In this way, standards are often referenced in regulations so that they can be used for regulatory purposes and enforced as such.Standards are therefore often key instruments used to help achieve broad societal objectives related to safety, performance, environmental protection, and so on.
Fully accredited (and enforceable) standards are developed in such a way that their fi nal content is determined by consensus, through the eff orts of a balanced committee of stakeholders where no one interest group dominates.Standards development organizations (like CSA Group) help ensure that this consensus-based drafting process is adhered to.Th ese organizations are audited by the Standards Council of Canada for compliance with best standards practices.

Key Examples of Standards Driving Societal Outcomes and Benefi ts
Standards are instruments with a long history of use-by some accounts dating back to the beginning of recorded history (American National Standards Institute 2016)-with often far-reaching societal benefi ts.Th ere are a number of examples that help illustrate the possible benefi ts of standards and their use in society.
One relatively early example that had far-reaching impacts and benefi ts, particularly in terms of allowing for consistency and effi ciencies in industrial production, was that of the standardization of screw thread sizes (American Society of Mechanical Engineers.).Th roughout the nineteenth century, this relatively straightforward process of standardization helped transform a number of key industries, including marine engineering and ship building, and it then spread throughout the general manufacturing sector.
More recently, a series of standards that have had signifi cant uptake and use by policy-makers are the ISO 14000 environmental management standards.According to a recent review by the International Organization for Standardization, 1 many countries-for example, many European countries, the United Kingdom, Japan, Australia, a number of Asian countries, as well as Canada-all directly reference these standards or use them voluntarily to meet public policy objectives.Th ese include for purposes and outcomes such as managing the recycling of electronics (Sweden), enforcing sustainable development policy (France), or ensuring that environment management best practices are used for public works ( Japan).
Another example more specifi c to Canada was the development of fi ve CSA standards in response to signifi cant safety and operational defi ciencies that had contributed to the 1982 Ocean Ranger disaster (an off shore drilling rig that sank off the coast of Newfoundland and Labrador).By the late 1980s and early 1990s the fi rst editions of these standards were published and subsequently referenced in the installation regulations for oil and gas related structures off shore Newfoundland and Nova Scotia.In the early 2000s the CSA standards were eliminated in order to adopt and adapt international standards covering the same topics.Th is allowed for the use of more up-to-date and internationally accepted design practices and knowledge, in turn facilitating the mobility of the workforce, eliminating trade barriers, and lowering costs due to the interchangeability of parts, shorter approval times, and so on.

Potential for Canada's North
Given the broader application of standards, what opportunities might exist for standards to help improve health, safety, and resiliency in Canada's North?Although standards might not be the only solution, standards are important tools that could be used in conjunction with other instruments and regulations, and with policies and programs to eff ect positive change.

Th e Provision of Clean and Accessible Water
A topic area of great importance for any community is to have a safe and suffi cient supply of water.However, there are a number of specifi c issues that face many northern communities in Canada.Some of the greatest challenges relate to climate change eff ects, infrastructure defi ciencies, inconsistent testing and monitoring of source water, and diffi culties in retaining trained and certifi ed water treatment plant operators (Ripley 2009;Nesbitt 2010).
Climate change is resulting in increased precipitation, warmer temperatures, and permafrost degradation, with some of the most serious impacts being the increased risk for contamination from wastewater treatment effl uents and leaching from solid waste sites.Furthermore, permafrost degradation can lead to structural failures in water and wastewater infrastructure components as well as in solid waste disposal sites.
Compounding the challenges posed by climate change, infrastructure issues-due to inappropriate design, construction, and maintenance processes-also impact water and wastewater treatment and distribution (Hazenberg, pers. comm.).In order to treat source water, many small northern communities use small-scale water treatment units (Ripley 2009).Ideally these should be operated by trained and certifi ed operators; however, many communities experience great diffi culties in fi nding and retaining these operators.Th e testing and monitoring of source water quality also plays a critical role in the eff ective treatment of drinking water.Testing has been found to be inconsistent in northern communities, resulting in an increased risk of incomplete treatment of source water, and, therefore, unsafe drinking water (Ripley 2009;Nesbitt 2010).
Another key challenge surrounding water treatment is preventing the overfl ow and leaching of wastewater from treatment lagoons into the environment (often a result of early and unplanned release).Many remote communities use "passive" wastewater treatment systems, such as lagoons, or a lagoon/wetland system, whereby water is stored and treated before being released into the environment (Ripley 2009).Nonetheless, although experts agree that such systems are the best wastewater treatment option, there is little guidance available for the design, construction, and operation of such systems.
Solid waste facilities also represent a major concern.Most of these facilities in northern communities were built without an engineered liner in place, relying instead on permafrost as a natural barrier to prevent leaching of contaminants into groundwater and other freshwater sources (Ripley 2009;Nesbitt 2010; Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment 2014).Such sites are highly susceptible to permafrost degradation.In many of the facilities that do have liners, the liners may be inappropriate for the facility or may not have been designed and installed according to cold climate conditions.Additional concerns surrounding waste disposal sites include the inappropriate disposal of hazardous waste, the overfi lling of waste sites, and the challenges posed by composting in extreme low temperatures such as found in the Arctic environment.

Adequate Emergency Response
Th e remoteness of northern Canada, as well as the extreme climate, results in unique requirements related to emergency response, including ensuring that the performance of processes, equipment, and technologies meet these diffi cult conditions.Th ese needs are heightened given expectations of increased vessel movement through Arctic waters due to climate change.
Th e mandate for establishing regulations for Canadian Arctic maritime emergency response falls under Transport Canada, which has adopted the International Maritime Organization's (IMO) Polar Code for ship operations in Arctic environments.Canada is involved in other relevant international eff orts through the International Organization for Standards (ISO) as well as the Arctic Council.Th e entities in Canada that could be involved in an emergency and response situation in the North include: • Canadian Air Force (CAF); Other issues that contribute to the risk profi le of the Arctic marine environment are related to the quality of navigation aids, inadequate hydrographic charts, and the availability of emergency and support services (e.g., ice breakers) (Council of Canadian Academies 2016; Offi ce of the Auditor General of Canada 2014).

Safe and Resilient Buildings
Fundamental to human existence is a safe, resilient, and culturally appropriate living environment.However, a number of distinct issues related to northern buildings and their construction, an obvious key component of the living environment, have been identifi ed.
Cold-climate conditions make building construction in the North a challenge.Permafrost conditions necessitate unique construction requirements and permafrost degradation further complicates construction (National Round Table on the Environment and Economy 2009).Climate change impacts construction methods and requires consideration of changing snow loads, wind, rain, and other northern conditions (Auld et al. 2010).
As buildings become more complex, achieving the proper operation of mechanical systems (e.g., heating systems); quality indoor environments (e.g., air quality, humidity levels); and proper building maintenance become more diffi cult.Th is is especially true given the environmental conditions, such as building on permafrost, as well as given the limited materials readily available in the North.Sourcing building systems and materials, as well as replacement parts, is challenging due to the relative lack of local materials and the long distances and costs involved in transporting these materials.
Designing culturally-appropriate architecture is also a challenge (Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation 2016).Neighbourhoods are, in many cases, designed around southern Canadian interpretations of community, and houses are designed around southern Canadian concepts of how diff erent rooms are used.
Th e technical challenges highlighted above are partially responsible for chronic and well-documented housing shortages (Canadian Polar Commission 2014).Th e need for northern housing policies and programs is being explored by various organizations (Pullat 2012;Skura 2016).
Th e National Building Code of Canada (National Research Council 2015), which is adopted by governments throughout the North, references some standards, including those published by CSA Group, that contain regional variations and address northern climatic conditions (e.g., fenestration energy performance).However, system fl exibility and adaptation will remain challenges that need to be addressed given the rate of climate change.

Environmental Protection and Management
Protecting the northern environment as well as adapting to climate change presents a number of unique challenges.Paramount amongst these is that the northern environment is one of extreme conditions and highly sensitive to human impacts, and often with limitations in the availability of weather and environmental data.
One overarching challenge is how future climate change is accounted for with respect to climate-sensitive topics-i.e., from the planning, design, and construction of infrastructure, to issues relating to food security.In particular, feedback from many experts and practitioners has identifi ed that there is a need for agreement on the best processes and procedures to factor future climate change into related decision-making, as well as the use of climate modelling and other tools used to project or account for environmental and climatic change.
A complicating challenge is that there are fewer stations that collect weather and environmental data in the North than in southern Canada.A lack of data could pose a challenge for numerous areas of public policy, regulations, and related decision-making.For example, this data might be necessary to help set requirements for buildings with respect to snow load, for the design of drainage systems, accounting for the eff ects of changes in permafrost for various infrastructure types, and many other issues (National Round Table on the Environment and Economy 2009).
In the mining sector, there are opportunities to advance procedures for adapting the design of tailings containment facilities to climate change and other unique environmental conditions (Pearce et al. 2010).Shoreline erosion due to reduced ice coverage causing more waves, in conjunction with increases in extreme weather, is also a concern that needs to be managed.
Th ere are other key challenges related to environmental protection as well as environmental management.Waste management is an ongoing concern in northern communities (CBC 2015).Th e geographical range of plant and animal species are also changing, in turn impacting on both local ecosystems and the populations that depend on hunting and fi shing for food and their livelihood.

Assessing the Potential Impact of Standards across Key Topics
Given the broader application of standards, what opportunities might exist for standards to help address key societal issues and challenges facing Canada's North?As noted earlier in the paper, although standards might not address all the challenges identifi ed or be the only solution, standards are important tools that could be used in conjunction with other instruments and regulations, and policy and programs to eff ect positive change.
Th rough the consultation process outlined in Section 2.2, fourteen specifi c ideas on standards-based contributions were identifi ed as summarized in Table 1.
Th e topics considered were then assessed according to the three criteria defi ned in Section 2-namely, the societal benefi t resulting from addressing these, their urgency, and the feasibility for standards.Th ree possible rankings were considered: high, medium, or low.Th e results are summarized in Table 2.
All four topics have potential implications for human health and safety, and all were deemed to have signifi cant societal benefi ts as well as being urgent to address given the close relationship between these topics and the well-being of those living in, working in, or visiting the North.Th is interpretation also corresponds with the basic premise that the physiological needs of water, warmth, and rest; the need for safety and security; and having a clean environment are the building blocks of a healthy society.The assessment of water treatment facilities and the design/ improvements of such facilities The design, construction, operation, and maintenance of wastewater treatment lagoons, wetlands, and lagoon/wetland hybrid systems The design, construction, operation, and maintenance of solid waste disposal sites, including the use of engineered liners

Emergency response
The capacity of fi rst responders and the availability and use of technologies and equipment for emergency response (including requirements for on-board vessels) The performance of the personal protection equipment (PPE) used in cold-climate conditions The detection, response, mitigation, and monitoring of Arctic oil/ chemical spills, including the use of technologies, equipment, and materials.

Buildings
The enhancement of building foundations for cold-climate conditions (i.e., beyond the requirements of the National Building Code of Canada) The update/expansion of existing northern-based building standards for other applications and users (e.g., CSA S500, Thermosyphon foundations for buildings) The design and construction of modular structures for housing and municipal buildings to better refl ect the culture of Canada's North The adoption of standards referenced in the National Building Code of Canada and data used within to incorporate changing climate conditions

Environmental protection
The disposal of municipal solid waste in northern communities The adoption of existing standards or the development of new ones for the design of northern tailings containment facilities Best practices with respect to factoring future climate change into relevant decision-making, as well as the use of climate modelling The minimization/mitigation of the effects of shoreline erosion For water, emergency response, and buildings, it is noted that for many issues and topics there is already an existing knowledge base as well as readily available stakeholders to contribute to the standards development process.For example, there are already existing standards such as CAN/ CSA-S500-14-Th ermosyphon foundations for buildings in permafrost regions and also the National Model Building code, which provide a strong basis to build from in terms of content and the technical expertise and experience refl ected.Meanwhile, existing documents related to emergency response may off er important starting points that can be adapted for use and application for northern characteristics and regions.
It is also noted that CSA Group is actively managing the development of standards or further investigating topics highlighted in this article.Specifi cally, a new standard covering wastewater treatment in northern communities using lagoon and wetland systems is currently being developed, with publication planned for 2019.A balanced group of stakeholders representing owner/operators, regulatory/policy/underwriter interests, consultants, and others such as those in the research community are engaged on this project.CSA Group is also working with Yukon College to further investigate needs with respect to standards and related documents (e.g., standards; guidance documents; as well as related training, certifi cation, testing, and so on) covering the topic of small-scale water distribution and wastewater systems in Canada's North.

Th e Need to Include Northerners and Northern Perspectives
Crossing nearly all the topics investigated, one central theme that emerges is the need for the involvement of northerners, and particularly the Indigenous populations, in helping to address these.Th e inclusion of northern perspectives is an opportunity that is receiving increasing attention more broadly, with recognition that this can help ensure the applicability, acceptance, and ultimate success of northern-focused initiatives (Pearce et al. 2009;Gearheard and Shirley 2007).
One key reason underpinning the need to include northerners' input, including Indigenous and local knowledge, is that these stakeholders often retain pivotal knowledge on the geophysical, cultural, and socioeconomic realities of Canada's North gained through direct observation as well as passed along intergenerationally (Weatherhead, Gearheard, and Barry 2010;Th ornton, Scheer, and Maciejewski 2012;Johnson et al. 2015;Laidler 2006).
Nonetheless, there are a number of related challenges and barriers that have proven diffi cult in allowing for the inclusion of both northern perspectives and data in northern-based policy and decision-making (Ellis 2005).In particular, those involved specifi cally with the development of standards have expressed that they face uncertainty and limitations in how to best engage northerners on these initiatives.A number of interacting and often mutually reinforcing factors have been cited, including those outlined in Figure 2. A limited pool of experts as historically defined by standards developers Response times, which can be much slower due to both geographical distance as well as cultural factors Both cultural and technical factors contribute to and exacerbate the above factors.Culturally, the lifestyles of many northerners, particularly those outside of the main population centres, is strongly impacted by the need to hunt and fi sh.At the same time, not only might there be poor internet connectivity, there may also be limitations in the use of computers or cell phones that can be used for communications.
Th ese factors also might impact other practitioners within other sectors, including those in research, policy-making, or other areas.Furthermore, the defi nition of "expert" may also need to be expanded, not only for standards development but, more broadly, to include holders of traditional knowledge and Indigenous perspectives since, historically, "experts" have been viewed largely as those gaining knowledge through academic study, research, business activities, or a combination thereof.
As a result of this assessment and consultation exercise, three additional opportunities have been identifi ed specifi c to the engagement and inclusion of northerners and northern perspectives in standards: • Th e mainstreaming of best practices for the engagement of Indigenous and non-Indigenous northerners in standards development initiatives; • Th e engagement of communities and other stakeholders on the application/use of standards; and • Th e inclusion of Indigenous people and traditional knowledge in the development of northern data and information, including the use of community-based monitoring.

Summary
Standards have a crucial role to play as part of the larger toolbox for helping to address human health, safety, resiliency, and environmental protection in Canada's North.Th rough consultation with a wide range of stakeholders and a literature review, fourteen diff erent opportunities for standards development have been identifi ed specifi c to the topic areas of water, emergency response, buildings, and environmental protection and management.Of these, the greatest priorities have immediate ties to human health, safety, and resiliency.
Northerners need to be part of any process for addressing these issues and the process of standards development off ers a valuable opportunity to help make this happen in a collaborative and consensus-based way.Th ree specifi c ideas for the better inclusion of northerner and northern perspectives have also been presented.However, eff ectively addressing and advancing issues specifi c to health, safety, resiliency, and environmental protection in Canada's North will require building upon successes and lessons learned, as well as engaging both the aff ected stakeholders and the relevant knowledge base for given challenges or opportunities.Partnering and collaborating with other stakeholders will also be crucial as the issues are complex and interlinked.Th is will all be essential to support and foster the development of solutions that lead to the sustainability of Canada's North.

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.Criteria used to help prioritize ideas for standards in Canada's North

Figure 2 .
Figure 2. Factors limiting northern participation in standards development Th e CAF, for example, has the capability to provide aeronautical and maritime search and rescue (SAR) services into the farthest and most remote locations in the Arctic region.Th e CCG is capable of providing SAR services on a seasonal basis through the deployment of icebreakers and some science vessels (National Defence and the Canadian Armed Forces 2016).Nonetheless, although Transport Canada does set forth rules and regulations for shipping, no separate set of regulations exist for SAR to respond to an Arctic event.Another consideration associated with any increase in marine activity is the increased risk of oil and chemical spills (Government of Northwest Territories 2015).While there has been much research and development geared toward technologies for oil and chemical spill response in Arctic marine conditions (International Organization for Oil and Gas Producers 2016), much of this research has not yet been encompassed in standards that are widely available to industry and other stakeholders.

Table 1 .
Possible standards-based contributions to the Canadian North

Table 2 .
Ranking of ideas for standards in the Canadian North