Investigating Standards for Small Water and Wastewater Systems in Northern Canada

Research investigating the potential of standards for the build, operation, and maintenance phases of small water and wastewater systems in the Canadian North was conducted to identify opportunities for standards to help ensure safe, accessible, and high-quality drinking water and sanitation for all northerners. This involved a review of literature, a survey of northern water system users and practitioners, and key informant interviews. The study highlights a general trend of low adaptation to local conditions for standardization documents on many technical topics in northern Canada. A number of major themes and corresponding recommendations are subsequently drawn with respect to potential for standardization efforts. Of these, training and certifi cation/ classifi cation were identifi ed as a key area that has many gaps, challenges, and potential opportunities with respect to the use of standardized procedures for small-scale water and wastewater systems. Subsequently, this is also identifi ed as the area where standardization efforts may have the broadest social benefi t, urgency, as well as potential feasibility. The Northern Review 51 (2021): 105–130 https://doi.org/10.22584/nr51.2021.005 Published by Yukon University, Whitehorse, Canada The Northern Review 51 | 2021 106


General
is article builds upon a comprehensive review of opportunities for standards to contribute to health, safety, resilience, and environmental protection in northern Canada (Steenhof 2018) by focusing on access to clean and safe drinking water and sanitation, and also considering the complementary roles of training and certi cation for this topic area.
While signi cant investments have been made in water and wastewater infrastructure in the North, water systems across the region 1 have received poor grades in recent years and are generally still below the Canadian average-especially in Indigenous communities and for systems servicing smaller communities and population centres (Ecojustice 2011;Government of Canada 2011;Human Rights Watch 2016). As communicated to the authors in this research, northerners also expressed concerns about the quality of wastewater treatment effl uents and the risk of leakage from failing infrastructure.
As such, in this article we focus on needs speci c to small-scale water and wastewater systems servicing 500 people or fewer. Based on a review of publicly available information, there are about 500 such systems in Canada's North (and thus an upper limit of 25,000 people in terms of the potentially aff ected population). is includes publicly owned small systems as well as systems serving the general public that are owned and operated by private interests.

Objectives and Intended Audience
ree broad objectives motivated the research: • to provide an assessment of the situation regarding standardization of small water/wastewater systems in Canada's North, with an overview of standardization documents and their usage; • to examine gaps and challenges with these systems, and; • to provide recommendations on where standardization eff orts would best be invested and in what form, particularly in terms of how standardization documents can be eff ectively used.
is article should be of interest to regulators, educators, operators, and related service providers involved with small-scale water and wastewater systems not only in northern Canada, but more broadly. Steenhof

Literature Review
Preliminary information was gathered through a literature review, with an emphasis on identifying gaps and challenges as well as which standardization documents are used or of relevance. e main sources of information were public authorities' websites, which were thoroughly examined and cross-referenced.

Engagement Exercise
Following the literature review, an engagement exercise was conducted to survey and then interview water/wastewater stakeholders active throughout Canada's North. is rst involved building a contact list of such stakeholders. A survey was sent to the entire contact list and then key informants were interviewed. A special eff ort was made to reach out to and engage with small-scale water and wastewater operators and stakeholders who self-declared Indigenous identity.
2.2.1 Survey e survey developed and employed for this project was meant to: • reveal current practices related to small water/wastewater systems in Canada's North; • generate feedback on gaps and challenges that had already been identi ed in order to determine their relative importance; • identify any standardization document that would not have been rendered by the literature review, with a broader objective of helping identify the typical usage of such documents, and; • identify where/how standardization could further play a role. e speci c questions in the survey were informed by the literature review process. e survey was disseminated through email, and fty-three recipients responded. Approximately half of the respondents (twenty-ve individuals) declared that they represented or belonged to a small community in northern Canada (with an average population size of 388 people). e Yukon was most represented, with 66% of the respondents (thirty-ve individuals). Twelve respondents came from the Northwest Territories (NWT), leaving approximately 12% to the other jurisdictions, including three individuals from Northern British Columbia. Twelve respondents declared an Indigenous identity. It is important to note that the respondents provided signi cant supplemental information via general comments through this survey.

Key Informant Interviews
Targeted key informant interviews were then conducted to drill down in the information obtained from the survey and to further inform the recommendations. Speci cally, these interviews were meant to help further inform how standardization documents are used in the interviewees' respective territorial/ provincial jurisdictions and communities, and to collect their perspective on gaps and challenges with small water/wastewater systems in the North. e interviewees were asked to share any success stories and point out any speci c concerns about any aspects of the water/wastewater system. e interviews provided quality feedback and information, complemented by generous supplementary comments from the survey.
3. Current Situation with Small-Scale Water and Wastewater Systems in the Canadian North e following provides an overview of the current situation regarding small-scale water/wastewater systems in northern Canada, as informed by the review of literature, the survey, and key informant interviews. Speci c details are provided for the various components of the water/wastewater system (e.g., from water sourcing to distribution, to water and wastewater testing, certi cation, and so on). e material in section 3 provides the basis for understanding and identifying possible needs and opportunities for standardization of water/wastewater systems, as detailed in sections 4 and 5.

Water Sourcing
Water sourcing varies with the availability and quality of source water. For example, the Yukon generally has favourable geological characteristics that provide an abundance of groundwater that can be easily treated. ese conditions consistently produce quality drinking water. Other northern regions need to rely on surface water bodies (e.g., lakes and rivers) and groundwater that, generally, have higher organic content. is poses a speci c challenge for disinfection and chlorination. ese sources are also prone to seasonal uctuation, such as high turbidity in the spring.
Where groundwater is suspected of potentially being under the direct in uence of surface water, legislation typically prescribes the use of a speci c standardized assessment method. For instance, the Yukon requires the use of an in-house method (Yukon Government 2006) It is also important to note that collecting water from the land, rather than using treated tap water, is preferred by many people across northern Canada. For example, Martin et al. (2007) found that 29% of Nunavik residents drank untreated raw water from the land. A number of reasons contributed to this, such as a dislike for the taste of chlorinated water or that "harvest water" is often viewed as an ancestral practice by many. Moreover, as heard through this research, many have built a distrust for drinking delivered water-with this sometimes associated with the perceived risk of gastrointestinal issues.

Water Distribution and Wastewater Collection
Small water systems in northern Canada often involve trucks delivering drinking water to residences (i.e., bulk water delivery). e same is true for wastewater collection. While the operating costs of bulk systems are high due to higher human resource requirements and truck operation costs, there is also a lower investment in construction and maintenance, often making it the most economical solution in the local conditions.

Water and Wastewater Treatment
Small water systems across the Canadian North use a variety of treatment processes. e design of each system and related treatment approach is based on such criteria as raw water quality, location, required water volume, preference of consumers, and legal requirements. Many small systems use a treatment train, starting with basic particle ltration, possibly followed by a variety of techniques targeting speci c water constituents (e.g., ion exchange, activated carbon, ultraviolet/chlorination/ ozone).
Where a regulation applies, one common requirement for small water systems in the North is that supplied water must undergo a continuous ltration and disinfection treatment if it comes from surface water, or from groundwater the microbiological quality of which is likely to be aff ected by surface water. e requirement sometimes extends to all types of raw water. Such primary disinfection is required before and during the distribution, and secondary chlorination treatment is also typically required to keep a minimum chlorine residual throughout the distribution system. 2 In exceptional circumstances, regulations will allow disinfection at point-of-use, foregoing primary and secondary chlorine treatment.
A few communities in the Northwest Territories and Nunavik use uoridation.
No water system serving the general public in the Yukon uses uoridation.
e majority of small communities in northern Canada rely on passive systems for wastewater treatment, such as stabilization ponds, lagoons, and treatment wetlands, and, for the smallest of systems, sometimes a septic eld. It is interesting to note that treatment wetlands, and especially wetland treatment areas, seem to be popular in certain regions of the North, especially NWT and Nunavut. Possible reasons include fewer operational requirements, they are easier to implement, and they have proven to be eff ective in the local conditions.

Operation and Servicing, Maintenance, and Repair
While the jurisdictions in the Canadian North have strict enforceable legislation that establishes requirements for the operation and maintenance (O&M) of water and wastewater systems, these largely apply to larger systems. Legal O&M requirements for small systems, rather, tend to be case speci c (e.g., through water licensing), and in some cases, nil. For example, not all small systems have legal reporting requirements. e legal requirements are supplemented by case-speci c operational and maintenance manuals such as Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs). Where standards and best practices exist for O&M, the manuals often refer to them in the same way legislation does. While there are a multitude of best practices, guidance documents, and similar standardization documents for this subject, few technical standards that would be speci cally applicable to operation, servicing/maintenance, and repair of components of water and wastewater systems in the conditions of northern Canada exist (for example, see CSA Group 2017).
Proactive maintenance of each water and wastewater system component is especially important with respect to the conditions of the North, particularly the limited expertise to repair them and logistical challenges to deliver replacement parts due to climate, remoteness, and isolation. e O&M requirements for the components of water and wastewater systems typically are those of the private suppliers. Sometimes there is also a legal provision to keep maintenance records in the form of a maintenance log (e.g., replacement of media or lters, replacement of lamps, performance testing, troubleshooting, and professional service events). Where a regulation applies for on-site water holding tanks, maintenance, cleaning, and disinfection is typically required at a minimum set frequency (e.g., once per year).

Testing and Monitoring
3.5.1 Water Sampling, Analysis, and Reporting All three territories and Nunavik base their water quality requirements on the "Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality" issued by the federal government (Health Canada 2020). ese standards de ne the biological, chemical, physical, and radiological criteria for drinking water to be considered safe in terms of the presence/absence or concentration of water constituents (e.g., absence of total coliforms; ≤ 0.1 mg/L trihalomethanes). Water quality is monitored to manage the risk from hazards that may compromise public health and safety, and also to ensure it is within guideline values.
Applicable regulations also establish requirements for water sampling and analysis, including the manner of collecting samples, transport, as well as testing methods and the type of instruments and laboratories to be used. For instance, there is typically a provision that sampling results, other than spot readings (e.g., chlorine, turbidity), can only be accepted if the laboratory is accredited. ese requirements are typically based on the "Standard Methods for Examination of Water and Wastewater" (American Public Health Association 2017). A variety of other well-established technical standards and standardization documents exist for speci c aspects of testing and monitoring, which are sometimes referred to in legislation.
Water licences and other regulatory instruments also often establish the frequency and sampling location requirements for each parameter of the water sample, as well as recording and reporting requirements. e requirements are as diverse as there are pieces of legislation, types and sizes of facilities, and parameters. Although case-speci c best practices and guidance documents exist for such aspects, technical standards barely exist for frequency and location of sampling, or for recording and reporting results.

Wastewater Monitoring
Across the North, wastewater quality criteria developed by the federal government currently apply only in the Yukon and only on systems producing at least 100 m 3 of wastewater per day (Environment Canada 2015). is volume requirement excludes most small systems. Where applicable, wastewater quality requirements are otherwise dictated by the individual water licence, which is case speci c.
ese often refer to best practices and other related standardization documents (American Public Health Association 2017). No technical standard, however, exists for wastewater quality requirements. Where legislation (including water licence) applies, sampling must typically be carried out at designated Surveillance Network Program (SNP) sites throughout the wastewater treatment system. e SNP sites are speci c to each wastewater treatment system and are determined as part of the water licence.
A limited number of accredited laboratories exist in Canada's North. For instance, public authorities operate laboratories that can analyze the presence of bacteriological content of drinking water in Whitehorse (Environmental Health Services), Yellowknife (Taiga), and Kuujjuak (Ungava Tulattavik Health Centre). Taiga Environmental Laboratory is also accredited for a wide range of organic and inorganic chemical analyses on water. No accredited laboratory currently operates in Nunavut. In Nunavik, accredited labs exist in the northern villages that can perform bacteriological analysis (Government of Quebec 2001). For all other analyses, samples must be shipped to private accredited laboratories located in southern Canada.

Certi cation of Water and Wastewater System Practitioners
3.6.1 General e territorial and provincial governments across northern Canada are responsible for establishing and enforcing operator certi cation requirements. ey are also responsible for recognizing certi cation and classi cation agencies. In turn, a certifying agency may require classi cation of facilities where certi ed operators are currently or will be working. Certi cation exam prerequisites (e.g., formal education, work experience, training) and requirements to maintain a certi cation (e.g., periodic re-examination, continuing education, periodic dues) are determined by the certifying agency and are speci c to each certi cation level.

Requirements for Operators to be Certi ed and Facilities to be Classi ed
Where provincial and territorial legislation exists, operators are typically required to hold a valid certi cation for regulated facilities. Although encouraged, certi cation is voluntary for operators working at any other water/wastewater facility, including all wastewater facilities and most small water facilities across Canada's North. is also re ects that where there is no wastewater legislation, there are no requirements for operators.

Certi cation and Classi cation
Unless stated otherwise in legislation, any certifying agency signatory to Canadian Water and Wastewater Operator Certi cation Committee's (CWWOCC) Best Practices can be recognized (CWWOCC 2014). For instance, the Environmental Operators Certi cation Program (EOCP) (EOCP 2018) is active and recognized for certi cation of water and wastewater operators and classi cation of their facilities in the Yukon. In the NWT, it is the NWT government, through its Municipal and Community Aff airs Department (MACA), that ful lls this role (GNWT 2018). No certifying/classi cation agency currently is active or recognized in Nunavut. Similar to the NWT, a governmental agency ful lls the role in Nunavik-Government of Quebec's Ministry of Work, Employment and Social Solidarity (Emploi-Québec 2019). It is worth noting that in Nunavut, as much as in Nunavik, local public authorities are currently developing certi cation abd classi cation programs that would apply to their speci c jurisdictions. e type of training activities that are necessary to prepare for a certi cation exam, as well as continuing education activities required to ful ll continuing education requirements, are typically off ered by institutions other than the legislator, certifying agency, or water/wastewater facility owner. In Canada's North, such opportunities are off ered by post-secondary academic institutions, professional associations, private companies, and sometimes by governments. Some activities are off ered in small rural centres or small communities, and online and web-conferencing options exist. As a mobile complement, private companies contracted through the Circuit Rider Training Program of Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Aff airs Canada (CIRNAC) do provide on-the-job continuing education activities in First Nation communities (CIRNAC 2020).

Identi ed Gaps, Challenges, and Potential Needs for Standardization
e following summarizes feedback received from the survey and key informant interviews on the gaps, challenges, and potential needs for standardization as related to small drinking water and wastewater systems in northern Canada. is is organized around six key themes that emerged from the research.

Engagement and Involvement of Indigenous Peoples and Indigenous Perspectives
One consistent message heard throughout the surveys and interviews was that there are opportunities to improve the engagement and involvement of Indigenous Peoples into each phase of the water/wastewater system life cycle. is could help ensure that the management, design, and types of systems, as well as related procedures, better re ect both the population being serviced and those likely to be involved in the O&M of these assets.
For example, concerns over the federal Safe Drinking Water for First Nations Act have been widespread and consistent since its proposal and adoption, including that it is inconsistent with a reconciliation approach (Behn 2019; ornton 2018). While recent international declarations and eff orts from the federal government have recognized human rights to water and sanitation, "It is not just the violation of rights that is the problem, it is also the removal of the ability to ful ll First Nations responsibilities as stewards of the land and water that are at issue as well" (Behn 2019, 10; see also United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples 2007).
An example of where respondents indicated that perspectives can be important is with the basic concept of what "water" and "wastewater" are. As Caleb Behn explains, " e Assembly of First Nations (AFN), instructed by Chiefs who are informed on the state of First Nations water and wastewater infrastructures, operates with the view that water is more than a commodity or a 'resource to be managed.' Rather, water is a sacred relation and a transcendent gift." (Behn 2019, 10).
An example of cultural speci cities that respondents underscored is languages. For example, courses and certi cation exams are, in most cases, only available in English, doing little to recognize the languages of the Indigenous Peoples living in northern Canada. More speci cally, one sentiment heard through the research was that a signi cant proportion of the Indigenous community does not like chlorinated water and questioned its potential impact on health as de ned from an Indigenous perspective. Removal of chlorine or ultraviolet (UV) disinfection in place of chlorination at point of use might be preferred options. Over and above the development and use of technical standards for these innovations, adoption of these might require accommodation of current regulations, which in some cases prescribes blanket chlorination in all instances.

Ensuring Consistent Use and Accessibility to Best Practices
is study highlighted that numerous guidance documents exist for small water and wastewater systems across northern Canada. However, users noted some diffi culties in accessing these, as well as possible inconsistencies among existing guidance documents-for example regarding aspects of tank cleaning, sampling frequency, and record-keeping and reporting. Also, there are diff erent approaches to important aspects of managing small water/wastewater systems and projects (e.g., planning, engagement, risk assessment, decision making). Respondents also told us that, in some cases, there had been ineff ective adaptation or design of drinking and wastewater systems to respond to local realities. Mohseni illustrated this with the following example: "many water plants fail because they're overdesigned for local needs or require complicated technology to operate" (UBC 2018; also see Mohseni 2016). e use and referencing of standards has been found to be well advanced in northern Canada for the design and build phase. Nonetheless, whereas there might be guidance available for design and build, it was identi ed that additional guidance may be needed for the management and operation of small water/ wastewater systems (as de ned before, this refers to those systems servicing 500 people or fewer). While many participants observed a general trend of low adaptation to local conditions for existing technical standards, as discussed in Section 4.1, they were clear that solutions for the North must be based on northern circumstances and encapsulate northerners' perspectives and knowledge.

Managing Challenging Environmental Conditions
ere are a number of challenges with respect to dealing with the impacts of extreme and changing climate on water/wastewater systems. For instance, passive wastewater systems can be highly impacted by the quantity of sunlight received by photosynthetic organisms during long summer days. Moreover, shipping and handling of water samples can be challenging due to both geographical and environmental factors. Notably, given the distances and transportation logistics involved, there are diffi culties in accessing laboratory services in a timely manner for testing time sensitive water samples across northern Canada. is situation is compounded by extreme cold temperatures, where samples can be compromised if exposed to freezing temperatures. is is especially true for bacteriological analysis (e.g., coliforms), which is sensitive to freezing. Similarly, there are unique coldrelated health and safety considerations for water/wastewater practitioners that need to be accounted for since their work can often involve a signi cant amount of time in very cold temperatures while performing maintenance or other detailed tasks. Although not entirely universal, much of the soil is locked in permafrost (permanently frozen ground), posing major challenges to construct and build, especially for underground infrastructures such as water wells, water supply piping, and sewers.
Science and Indigenous Knowledge both attest to major climatic changes happening in northern Canada, with these changes happening at a faster rate than southern regions. Changes include higher temperatures, alteration of precipitation patterns, an increase in occurrence of extreme climatic events, and permafrost degradation-with the latter contributing to instances of structural failures in water and wastewater system components (CSA Group 2017). For example, Norman Wells, NWT, had to replace its water reservoir in 2008 due to structural cracks caused by ground settlement (Ripley 2009). e risk is especially high with components that have been designed to rely on permafrost to maintain their structure. Recent examples are in Old Crow, Yukon, and Umiujaq, Nunavik, where permafrost degradation and changes in precipitation patterns contributed to the failure of wastewater treatment infrastructures, in turn leading to an increased risk for contamination from wastewater effl uents. Permafrost melt may also alter the composition of source water. For example, surface water might see an increase in humic acids and turbidity levels, which subsequently can escalate maintenance costs and require more chlorine to adequately disinfect water (Ripley 2009).

Capacity Building, Training, and Continuing Education
Capacity building, training, and continuing education are key to ensuring a workforce that is adequate and capable of designing, building, operating, and maintaining and servicing water and wastewater systems and infrastructure. While the feedback received indicated that the level of knowledge and information contained in the courses currently off ered throughout the North is appropriate, a number of challenges and opportunities for advancement, including costs, a general lack of local opportunities, and some inconsistency in the capacity building methods being used, were also noted. For example, respondents felt that in-class and live virtual training courses can sometimes be "too intense," with a lot of theoretical concepts covered while sitting for four to ve days consecutively. Much like what was identi ed by ECO Canada (Environmental Labour Market Research 2010), respondents were clear that hands-on and on-the-job training and continuing education were the optimal methods; unfortunately, however, such opportunities are not always available in the North and are expensive. e interest to develop cross-training between roles, communities, and systems that was identi ed by the Yukon Government (Yukon Government 2017) was also con rmed in this research.
e study participants also expressed that local capacity building opportunities were generally insuffi cient for the workers to acquire and maintain their certi cation, with limited ability to travel long distances or for long periods of time to attend classes where they were off ered. In particular, these are typically only off ered in the largest centres that often are at a great distance and sometimes require air travel. Online and virtual options are only good in so far as the attendee already has the necessary skills (e.g., computer pro ciency).
Another key consideration raised was the lack of redundancy and replacement opportunities when a team member must leave for a few days to attend training or continuing education. is was identi ed as critical in smaller teams, especially when alternative workers lacked certi cation and operation of the facility legally required valid certi cation. It was suggested that certi cation of a higher proportion of the team members could contribute to alleviating this issue, as well as access to temporary, mobile certi ed workers. While praising the eff orts already imparted (e.g., CIRNAC support for Yukon Water and Wastewater Operator Program), it was felt that support by public agencies for capacity building of small water and wastewater operators was uneven and could be improved across northern Canada.
As discussed in section 4.1, there may also be language barriers given that training and continuing education courses are only available in English, whereas many more languages have offi cial status (e.g., eleven languages in NWT, four languages in Nunavut, and French and Inuktitut in Nunavik), and even more Indigenous languages spoken.

Certi cation of Water and Wastewater Practitioners
Participants acknowledged that certi cation was often challenging to obtain. Some of the challenges included costs and insuffi cient opportunities, especially at the local level, for the same reasons as mentioned for capacity building in the previous section. Although online options exist in some cases, an invigilator must typically be present, and it was found that personnel to ful ll that role were not always available.
While participants noted that the three certifying agencies active in the North strived to follow the Canadian Water and Wastewater Operator Certi cation Committee (CWWOCC)'s Best Practices (CWWOCC 2014), their programs vary considerably, with no inter-jurisdiction transferability. For instance, although most signatories to CWWOCC's Best Practices have reciprocity agreements, there are no reciprocity agreements between certifying agencies active in Canada's North. Moreover, although standardized exams seem to be an avenue of choice for some certifying and classi cation agencies for systems servicing more than 500 people, there are currently no standardized exams for small water or small wastewater operator certi cation, no more than for bulk water delivery. is situation is similar to what once prevailed across North America and which led to the creation of the Association of Boards of Certi cation (ABC) (Association of Boards of Certi cation 2013) and, later, the CWWOCC (CWWOCC 2014) and the Certi cation Commission for Environmental Professionals (C 2 EP) (Certi cation Commission for Environmental Professionals 2018).
Respondents also reported that a lack of legal requirements for certi cation eff ectively posed a barrier to training and continuing education of operators in that eff orts and costs related to certi cation are not as evidently justi able and warrantable nancially. For instance, although encouraged, certi cation is voluntary for most small water and wastewater operators working in Canada's North. is, in turn, is seen as contributing to the risk imparted to small water and wastewater systems. By comparison, the legislation in all of Canada's southern provinces has a mandatory operator certi cation requirement, albeit not always applicable to small operators.
Certi cation programs are the result of decades of hard work and consensusbuilding eff orts. Recognizing the challenges inherent to building and maintaining a personnel certi cation program, especially for a sparse population scattered over a large region, respondents pointed out that not all certifying agencies active in the North respected the independence criteria as set out by the industry. Independence is seen as an important tool in ensuring autonomy and impartiality and in warding against inappropriate in uence, potential con ict of interest, and unintentional self-serving bias, as well as for controlling the risk imparted to small water and wastewater systems (Association of Boards of Certi cation 2013; CWWOCC 2014).
Similar to training and continuing education, mixed comments were heard regarding the cultural adaptation of certi cation schemes, as discussed in section 4.1. In contrast, participants noted that the certifying agency active and recognized in Nunavik was somewhat culturally and linguistically exible, with documents and communication being available in rst languages such as Inuktitut, and usage languages such as English, over and above the offi cial French language.

Recruitment, Retention, and Advancement of Operators
As previously noted by ECO Canada (Environmental Labour Market Research 2010) for Canada, by CSA Group (CSA Group 2017) for Canada's North, and by the Yukon Government for the Yukon speci cally (Yukon Government 2017), respondents reinforced that the recruitment and retention of the workforce necessary to help operate and maintain water and wastewater systems can be a major challenge in northern Canada.
It was particularly emphasized that the region's remoteness and the smaller labour supply pool to draw from can limit the availability and attraction of potential operators. is is often exacerbated by competition for employees from other economic sectors such as mining. Smaller communities also often lose talent to larger municipalities that off er greater career growth and better pay.
Respondents indicated that challenges inherent to capacity building and certi cation/classi cation heavily impacted recruitment, retention, and advancement. e fact that small-system operators often must cover more tasks than larger system operators, increases the training, certi cation, and continuing education development requirements of each individual. In addition to these factors, respondents expressed that requirement for hands-on work experience at a water and wastewater facility before being hired as an operator can be a challenge in cases where opportunities for hands-on work experience are limited. e compartmentalization and limited harmonization of the three operator certifying programs active across the Canadian North (see section 4.5 above) was a major challenge to recruitment, retention, and advancement of the operators in that it eff ectively hampered the mobility of skilled trades and the sharing of knowledge and best practices within northern Canada and beyond. Respondents also mentioned that many small water and wastewater practitioners lacked the training in leadership, communication, and computer skills to enable them to advance in the workforce, much like that identi ed by the Yukon Government (Yukon Government 2017).
Respondents also communicated that, due to formal education levels in the North not always being on par with the southern reality, community-based recruitment, retention, and advancement of operators is negatively aff ected. It was heard that this education disparity was most critical in small communities. Identi ed challenges and barriers to formal education included incompatibilities of education systems with the lifestyles and living conditions of northerners, lack of coordination among relevant stakeholders, and other systemic issues. Similar to what was identi ed by the Yukon Government (Yukon Government 2017), participants were insistent that such social challenges as lack of opportunity for adults to pursue Grade 12 equivalency in the North, and unconventional limitations to what was recognized as Grade 12 equivalency were major compounding factors.
Respondents identi ed that it would be bene cial to have more mentoring, improved training and continuing education for junior staff , better formal education systems, greater clarity over what constitutes high school equivalency, as well as better succession planning generally, all of which represent standardization opportunities.

Recommendations
e following recommendations are based on an analysis of the survey responses and the feedback from the interviewees, particularly with respect to the identi ed gaps, challenges, and potential needs for standardization as detailed above. Some recommendations call for harmonizing, streamlining, and improving the usage of existing standardization documents, while others call for the development of new standards. Where possible, recommendations address the content in standards and related documents so that these can be eff ectively used in small communities.
Nonetheless, it is emphasized that while this is presented for the North overall, the situation regarding water and wastewater systems diff ers signi cantly from jurisdiction to jurisdiction.

Engagement of Indigenous Nations and Peoples
CSA Group northern Canada report (CSA Group 2017) identi ed a number of fundamental elements of success and best practices for the engagement of Indigenous and non-Indigenous northerners. Paramount is the need to both acknowledge and include the variety of perspectives, conceptions, and cultural and societal speci cities of Indigenous Nations and Peoples, as well as to recognize the value and contribution of Indigenous Knowledge and the related importance and role of Elders. A number of key aspects concerning how standards and related instruments (such as guidance) for various phases of the water and wastewater lifecycle could help support this were also gathered through the literature review and heard through the engagement process of this research.
For instance, promotion of well-established and successful engagement models such as RÉS'EAU/WaterNET's "Community Circle" approach (RÉS'EAU/ WaterNET 2018) could do much in advancing engagement processes. is model has a strong track record in small Indigenous communities by conducting research and testing on promising new solutions under real-world conditions, and integrating community feedback into the re nement process. Such success stories involved, for example, the implementation of point-of-entry (POE) treatment systems to meet site-speci c needs and the installation of a mobile water treatment unit.
Respondents also emphasized and reinforced that it is critical to formally recognize the value of Indigenous Knowledge, as well as cultural and societal speci cities, in any document involving the topic of Indigenous engagement, such as incorporation of world view, language, history, customs, values, traditional economic roles, infrastructure, governance, and diff erences across Indigenous communities and Peoples. Any eff ort to develop guidance on this topic area should also consider the ethics of the decolonization of science as well as the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada Final Report (Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada 2015), with meaningful consultation and building respectful relationships in conformity with relevant international legal frameworks and related documents, such as: •

Promote and Facilitate the Use of Existing Standardization Documents
As identi ed through the literature review as well as the stakeholder consultation process, there are many relevant and existing standardization documents that could be utilized for the purpose of small-scale water and wastewater systems.
Where relevant for small systems and with due consideration for local conditions, eff orts should be made to have these referenced within operations and maintenance manuals (e.g., Standard Operating Procedures) and referenced or required as part of tendering documents. For instance, there are opportunities to reference well-established standards in product speci cations, procurement documents, and sourcing requirements to help improve asset management and accessibility to the parts and equipment used and needed by small water and wastewater system practitioners in the North.
Eff orts should be made to have these referenced in relevant legislation. One general attribute of standards is that these can be much more easily updated than compared to legislation, and also can be used to complement regulations through the process of "regulation through reference." Opportunities exist for First Nation governments to reference such technical standards as they (re)build their own governance structures and institutions, such as their unique sets of regulations governing the design, build, operation, and maintenance of their water and wastewater systems.
Special eff orts should also be made to see that well-established standards are used and referenced with technical topics for which referencing is not as welladvanced, such as management (e.g., emergency plans); operations, maintenance and servicing, and repair (e.g., tank cleaning); and testing and monitoring (e.g., reporting and record keeping).
Referencing standards in tendering documents, legislation, and so on, could help facilitate accountability and could be used to enforce circumstances where procedures are not followed. is would require, and bene t from, the involvement of key stakeholders, notably regulatory authorities that could raise the pro le of any related standard and heighten their potential use and applicability. ere is also the opportunity for standards to provide requirements or recommendations for record drawings post construction so that designs are installed to speci cations. Some examples of existing standards are provided in Table 1.

Mainstreaming Existing Best Practices and Developing New Standards
ere is an opportunity to mainstream existing guidance documents, procedures, and best practices into new technical standards. A wide variety of best practices and guidance documents exist as related to water and wastewater systems generally. ese could form the basis for more widely useable and referable standards speci c to small-scale water and wastewater systems in northern Canada. ese could allow for the broader application of best practices, encourage consistency in approach across these regions, and allow for the use of standards for reference in tendering documents and in regulation more broadly. Existing technical standards developed based on southern realities could also be adapted so that these are more applicable to the North and northern stakeholders.
Nonetheless, there are important topics where best practices or similar standardization documents are limited and could bene t from the development of technical standards. ese include, for example, issuing and rescinding boil water advisories, assessing groundwater that is under the direct in uence of surface water, freeze prevention in water distribution lines, pharmaceuticals treatment, pointof-use dechlorination, POE UV treatment, ozone treatment (pre-distribution and POE), stabilized hydrogen peroxide treatment (pre-distribution and POE), or remote sensing/monitoring and process control. Other broader topics include issues related to water delivery truck technical speci cations and O&M more generally.

Analysis of Water and Wastewater across Canada's North
Recognizing that the presence of laboratories is mostly market-driven, there appears to be a need to help bolster the analysis of water across the North as per the quality of both drinking water and wastewater effl uents and the operational integrity of water and wastewater infrastructures. As possible, given things like nancial or staffi ng constraints, this should be done in collaboration with public authorities (governments). For instance, there might be an opportunity for the establishment and support of laboratories accredited for pro ciency, quality assurance, quality control, and accountability according to already existing laboratory conformity assessment standards or other standards developed speci cally for the topic.
is could include the training of local health practitioners (e.g., at local nursing stations) to perform such standardized analysis as Colilert TM for bacteriological content.

Training, Certi cation, and Continuing Education of the Operators
Northerners involved in this project were clear that there are opportunities to standardize certi cation schemes inter-jurisdictionally, making staff transferability possible, for example, through reciprocity agreements. As mentioned by ABC (Association of Boards of Certi cation 2013), "this call for standardization and collaboration between operator certi cation programs is not merely for the sake of uniformity, but also to provide the opportunity for greater assurances of public health and environmental protection." Standardization of certi cation schemes can also foster synergies between jurisdictions sharing similarities in terms of governance, culture, geography, and environment. For instance, standardization of certifying models can bring savings through economies of scale and by removing redundancy. Most importantly, standardization of models across the North could give rise to a better representation of the societal/cultural, environmental, and geographical speci cities of the region in terms of capacity building and certi cation and classi cation. Harmonization could also help recruitment and stimulate recognition and transferability of operators outside the region.
Standards exist that can help certifying and classi cation agencies harmonize their practices. Basic standards include ABC (Association of Boards of Certi cation 2013) and CWWOCC (CWWOCC 2014). For instance, the collaborative development and adoption of standard exams for small water, wastewater, and bulk water delivery operators could do much for inter-jurisdiction transferability as well as recruitment, retention, and career advancement. e adoption of a common, standard, and consistent de nition of what constitutes Grade 12 equivalency could also have a signi cant impact. e adoption of a standardized requirement for bulk water delivery operators to attend subjectspeci c training and commit to continuing education like other certi ed water and wastewater operators could enhance safety and reliability of the systems while fostering public health. A further elaborated alternative could be for Canada's northern stakeholders to call on a common certifying agency active and recognized in multiple jurisdictions such as EOCP (EOCP 2018) and C 2 EP (Certi cation Commission for Environmental Professionals 2018).
Another option could be for northerners to develop a cross-jurisdiction certifying agency speci c to the Canadian North. is would require broad stakeholder representation and a signi cant commitment. As with other topic areas, this could be speci c to small water and wastewater systems or broader, and while it could be limited to the typical de nition of water and wastewater operators, it could also be applicable to other legislated and related professions involved with each lifecycle component of the water and wastewater systems, and which currently are governed under their own set of certifying agencies (e.g., laboratory analyst, well driller, and so on). Such a certi cation program could also be designed to serve all of northern Canada or only speci c jurisdictions.
is could be an opportunity to better align the quali cation process to that of traditional trades such as Red Seal.
A better alignment of certi cation programs with conformity assessment (e.g., independence criteria) and quality assurance standards (e.g., continuous improvement) could do much to alleviate unnecessary systemic risks imparted to small water and wastewater systems across the North.
Diversity in capacity-building approaches and topics is essential to ful ll the purpose of exposing operators to new and rapidly evolving water treatment technologies, legislation, and health risks. e adoption of common requirements that would address the speci cities of small systems across Canada's North would, however, support standardization eff orts in certi cation/classi cation, while keeping and respecting the independence of each training and continuing education institution and the people they cater to. is could also be an opportunity to better represent the cultural/societal speci cities of the populations living in northern Canada, for instance through licensing under ECO Canada's Building Environmental Aboriginal Human Resources program (ECO Canada 2020) or another technical standard developed speci cally for the situation.
Other key factors that should be considered for the success of such potential standardization projects for training, certi cation, and continuing education include: • accessibility with respect to cost; • consideration of the fact that acquisition of hands-on working hours can take much longer with small systems as the work shifts are short and often sporadic; • use of a common, standard, and consistent de nition of what constitutes Grade 12 equivalent; • provide for the integration of new operators (e.g., internship) and encourage mentoring/hands-on training; • consider current typical level of formal education (e.g., Grade 12) in the application area; • re ect the current and prospective physical environment realities in the application area; • utilize the Multi-Barrier Approach (source to tap), with emphasis on source water protection; and • other factors for the success of engaging Indigenous Peoples (see section 5.1).

Conclusions
Research investigating the potential of standards for the build, operation, and maintenance phases of small water and wastewater systems in northern Canada was conducted to identify opportunities for standards to help ensure safe, accessible, and high-quality drinking water and sanitation for all northerners. A literature review was conducted, followed by an engagement exercise through a survey and targeted interviews to gather northerners' perspectives. Water governance in the Canadian North is inherently complex. e situation is rapidly evolving and important pieces of legislation have been put in place in recent years where high requirements have been established, especially for larger systems.
Small water and wastewater systems in northern Canada also diff er in many ways from their southern Canada counterparts. For instance, bulk delivery and collection systems are more common than in southern Canada, and wastewater is mainly treated through passive systems including constructed and tundra wetlands.
is study highlights that many existing technical documents do not adequately re ect the unique climatic and environmental conditions in northern Canada. It is worth noting that in the North, standardization seems to be more advanced with drinking water systems compared to wastewater treatment systems, and with the "design & build" phase of these systems, compared to other lifecycle phases.
A number of major themes and corresponding recommendations have been drawn from this research project with respect to the potential for standardization eff orts. is includes the engagement and involvement of Indigenous Peoples and perspectives; ensuring consistent use and accessibility to best practices; managing challenging environmental conditions; capacity building and training and continuing education; certi cation of water and wastewater practitioners; and the recruitment, retention, and advancement of operators.
Of the themes identi ed, training and certi cation/classi cation were identi ed as a key area that has many gaps, challenges, and potential opportunities with respect to the use of standardized procedures for small-scale water and wastewater systems. For instance, the lack of harmonization seems to undermine inter-jurisdiction transferability of skills and knowledge. Subsequently, this is also identi ed as the area where standardization eff orts may have the broadest social bene t and urgency, as well as potential feasibility.

1.
For the purposes of this article, the Canadian North is de ned as all Canadian geographical areas above the 60th degree of latitude. Reference is also made in some sections to the Arctic, particularly when speaking of speci c geographical features such as Arctic waters or where existing regulations or associated government departments use the word Arctic. e research methodology included engaging both stakeholders physically located in the North as well as others not necessarily located there but still with signi cant experience and knowledge of northern issues.

2.
Primary disinfection kills or inactivates bacteria, viruses, and other potentially harmful organisms in drinking water, while secondary disinfection provides longer-lasting water treatment as the water moves through pipes to consumers (Environmental Protection Agency 2009).